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Blanchard Articles
| #1 - Typology of male-to-female transsexualism. | #11 - Sibship size, sibling sex ratio, birth order, and parental age in homosexual and nonhomosexual gender dysphorics. |
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#2 - Social desirability response set and systematic distortion in the self-report of adult male gender patients. |
#12 - Nonmonotonic relation of autogynephilia and heterosexual attraction. |
| #3 - Phallometric detection of fetishistic arousal in heterosexual male cross-dressers. | #13 - Proportion of unmarried siblings of homosexual and nonhomosexual gender-dysphoric patients. |
| #4 - Heterosexual and homosexual gender dysphoria. | #14 - The she-male phenomenon and the concept of partial autogynephilia. |
| #5 - A test of the DSM-III--R's implicit assumption that fetishistic arousal and gender dysphoria are mutually exclusive. | #15 - Varieties of autogynephilia and their relationship to gender dysphoria. |
| #6 - Nonhomosexual gender dysphoria. | #16 - Erotic target location errors in male gender dysphorics, paedophiles, and fetishists. |
| #7 - The classification and labeling of nonhomosexual gender dysphorias. | #17 - Men with sexual interest in transvestites, transsexuals, and she-males. |
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#8 - The concept of autogynephilia and the typology of male gender dysphoria. |
#18 - Partial versus complete autogynephilia and gender dysphoria. |
| #9 - Clinical observations and systematic studies of autogynephilia. | #19 - A structural equation model for age at clinical presentation in nonhomosexual male gender dysphorics. |
| #10 - Age, transvestism, bondage, and concurrent paraphilic activities in 117 fatal cases of autoerotic asphyxia. | #20 - Comparison of height and weight in homosexual versus nonhomosexual male gender dysphorics. |
#1
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Typology of male-to-female transsexualism.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 14(3) Jun 1985, 247-261.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
Tested a prediction derived from the hypothesis that asexual and bisexual transsexualism are actually subtypes of heterosexual transsexualism. Two questionnaires measuring erotic attraction to males and females were administered to 163 male-to-female transsexuals (mean age 29.7 yrs). A cluster analysis of their scores divided the Ss into 4 groups: heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, and asexual. Fisher Exact tests were used to compare the frequency with which Ss in the 4 clusters reported a history of erotic arousal in association with cross-dressing. As predicted, there were no differences among the asexual, bisexual, and heterosexual transsexuals, and all 3 groups included a much higher proportion of fetishistic cases than the homosexual group. Findings support the view that male transsexuals may be divided into 2 basic types: heterosexual and homosexual.
#2
Blanchard, Ray; Clemmensen, Leonard H; Steiner, Betty W.
Title: Social desirability response set and systematic distortion in the self-report of adult male gender patients.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 14(6) Dec 1985, 505-516.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
51 homosexual and 64 heterosexual males (mean age 30.4 yrs) came to a gender identity clinic with the request for sex reassignment, with the desire to explore the possibility of sex reassignment, or as a result of spousal pressure due to cross-dressing. Ss were administered the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale and 8 measures that tapped various features of the clinical history commonly given great weight in differential diagnosis. Results indicate that the tendency for a heterosexual S to describe himself in terms of moral excellence or admirable personal qualities was significantly correlated with scores in the transsexual direction on all 8 sexological measures. For the homosexual Ss, only 1 correlation was significant. It is argued that the patients most motivated to create a favorable impression on the examiner are likely to be those most anxious to obtain approval for sex reassignment surgery. Because, in this population, the socially desirable presentation is feminine, it is suggested that the differences in the histories produced by transvestites and heterosexual transsexuals are exaggerated to an unknown degree by the motivation of the latter to obtain approval for this operation. The need for caution in interpreting the self-report data among these groups is stressed. (29 ref)
#3
Blanchard, Ray; Racansky, I. G; Steiner, Betty W.
Title: Phallometric detection of fetishistic arousal in heterosexual male cross-dressers.
Source: Journal of Sex Research. Vol 22(4) Nov 1986, 452-462.
Society for the Scientific Study of Sex, US
Abstract
Examined whether an erotic response to cross-dressing fantasies could be detected in heterosexual male cross-dressers (HCDs) who verbally denied any erotic arousal in association with cross-dressing for at least the past year. Ss were 37 HCD patients (mean age range 29.1-36.2 yrs) and 10 heterosexual controls (mean age 23 yrs). HCDs were divided into groups according to their response to a questionnaire item asking the proportion of occasions that cross-dressing was erotically arousing during the past year. Penile blood volume was monitored while Ss listened to descriptions of cross-dressing and sexually neutral activities. All HCD groups responded significantly more to cross-dressing than to neutral narratives. It is suggested that only those causal hypotheses of heterosexual cross-dressing that also account for the presence of fetishism need to be considered.
#4
Blanchard, Ray; Clemmensen, Leonard H; Steiner, Betty W.
Title: Heterosexual and homosexual gender dysphoria.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 16(2) Apr 1987, 139-152.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
Investigated why more males than females complain of dissatisfaction with their anatomical sex (gender dysphoria). New referrals to a university gender identity clinic were dichotomously classified as heterosexual or homosexual. There were 73 heterosexual males (mean age 33.97 yrs), 52 homosexual males (mean age 25.89 yrs), 1 heterosexual female, and 71 homosexual females (mean age 25.30 yrs). The heterosexual males reported that their first cross-gender wishes occurred around the time they first cross-dressed, whereas the homosexual groups reported that cross-gender wishes preceded cross-dressing by 3-4 yrs. Some history of fetishistic arousal was acknowledged by over 80% of the heterosexual males, compared to fewer than 10% of homosexual males and no homosexual females. Results suggest that males are not differentially susceptible to gender dysphoria per se, but they are differentially susceptible to one of the predisposing conditions, namely, fetishistic transvestism.
#5
Blanchard, Ray; Clemmensen, Leonard H.
Title: A test of the DSM-III--R's implicit assumption that fetishistic arousal and gender dysphoria are mutually exclusive.
Source: Journal of Sex Research. Vol 25(3) Aug 1988, 426-432.
Society for the Scientific Study of Sex, US
Abstract
Assessed the proportion of adult, male, heterosexual cross-dressers who acknowledge both gender dysphoria and at least occasional fetishistic response to cross-dressing. Ss were 193 outpatients of the gender identity clinic or behavioral sexology department of a psychiatric teaching hospital who were surveyed on current level of gender dysphoria and their recent history of sexual response to cross-dressing. Ss who reported higher levels of gender dysphoria tended to report lower frequencies of sexual arousal and masturbation with cross-dressing. About half of even the most strongly gender dysphoric Ss reported becoming sexually aroused or masturbating at least occasionally when cross-dressing. Findings indicate a need for revision in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-III--Revised (DSM-III--R) of diagnostic criteria for transvestism and gender identity disorders.
#6
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Nonhomosexual gender dysphoria.
Source: Journal of Sex Research. Vol 24 1988, 188-193.
Society for the Scientific Study of Sex, US
Abstract
Tested the hypothesis that asexual, bisexual, and heterosexual transsexualism are akin to one another and to transvestism, whereas homosexual transsexualism has a different etiology. 16 men of each type were compared as to age at which they first presented for assessment and self-reported degree of childhood femininity. Data support the hypothesis.
#7
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: The classification and labeling of nonhomosexual gender dysphorias.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 18(4) Aug 1989, 315-334.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
Suggests systematic strategies for the descriptive classification of nonhomosexual (NH) gender identity disorders, based on clinical observations and research findings. A review of cross-gender taxonomies shows that previous observers have identified and labeled a homosexual type more consistently than any other category of male gender dysphoric. It is suggested that the apparent difficulty in differentiating reliably among NH types results from the sharing of overlapping characteristics by various groups. It is concluded that the main varieties of NH gender dysphoria are more similar to each other than any of them is to the homosexual type. Recommendations are offered for the classification of male gender dysphorics in research studies.
#8
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: The concept of autogynephilia and the typology of male gender dysphoria.
Source: Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. Vol 177(10) Oct 1989, 616-623.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, US
Abstract
Tested the hypothesis that all gender-dysphoric males who are not sexually aroused by men (homosexual) are instead sexually aroused by the thought or image of themselves as women (autogynephilic). Ss were 212 adult male-to-female transsexuals (aged 17-63 yrs) divided into 4 groups; 1 homosexual and three nonhomosexual. The nonhomosexual groups were heterosexual, bisexual, and analloerotic (unattracted to male or female partners, but not necessarily devoid of all erotic behavior). A Core Autogynephilia Scale was developed to assess an S's propensity to be sexually aroused by the fantasy of being a woman. As predicted, all nonhomosexual groups were more likely than the homosexual group to report sexual stimulation by cross-gender fantasy. Findings thus support the hypothesis.
#9
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Clinical observations and systematic studies of autogynephilia.
Source: Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. Vol 17(4) Win 1991, 235-251.
Taylor & Francis, England
Abstract
Describes autogynephilia, a male's paraphilic tendency to be sexually aroused by the thought or image of himself as a woman. Four types of autogynephilia are discussed: physiologic, behavioral, anatomic, and transvestic. Four recent studies by the author (1988, 1989) suggest 3 main conclusions: (1) autogynephilia is a misdirected type of heterosexual impulse; (2) the majority of men who acknowledge anatomic autogynephilia also report some history of transvestism; (3) anatomic autogynephilia is more closely associated with gender dysphoria than is transvestism. A case illustration involving a 38-yr-old patient is presented.
#10
Blanchard, Ray; Hucker, Stephen J.
Title: Age, transvestism, bondage, and concurrent paraphilic activities in 117 fatal cases of autoerotic asphyxia.
Source: British Journal of Psychiatry. Vol 159 Sep 1991, 371-377.
Royal Coll of Psychiatrists, England
Abstract
Autoerotic asphyxia is the practice of self-inducing cerebral anoxia, usually by hanging, strangulation, or suffocation, during masturbation. 117 males (aged 10-56 yrs) were studied who died accidentally during autoerotic asphyxial activities. Data concerning sexual paraphernalia at the scene of death or among the deceased's effects were extracted from coronors' files. Anal self-stimulation with dildos, etc., and self-observation with mirrors or cameras were correlated with transvestism. Older asphyxiators were more likely to have been simultaneously engaged in bondage or transvestism, suggesting elaboration of the masturbatory ritual over time. The greatest degree of transvestism was associated with intermediate rather than high levels of bondage, suggesting that response competition from bondage may limit asphyxiators' involvement in a 3rd paraphilia like transvestism.
#11
Blanchard, Ray; Sheridan, Peter M.
Title: Sibship size, sibling sex ratio, birth order, and parental age in homosexual and nonhomosexual gender dysphorics.
Source: Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. Vol 180(1) Jan 1992, 40-47.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, US
Abstract
Investigated whether demographic variables differentiate gender-dysphoric homosexuals from gender-dysphoric persons with other sexual orientations. Ss were 204 homosexual women (HW), 193 homosexual men (HM), and 273 nonhomosexual men (NHM), all of whom were outpatients. The HM had significantly more siblings than the HW, who in turn had significantly more siblings than the NHM. The sibling sex ratio of the HM, 131 brothers per 100 sisters, was significantly higher than the sex ratio of live births for the population as a whole. The HM had a significantly later birth order than the NHM; the HW did not differ significantly from either male group. There were no between-group differences in paternal or maternal age at the time of the S's birth.
#12
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Nonmonotonic relation of autogynephilia and heterosexual attraction.
Source: Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Vol 101(2) May 1992, 271-276.
American Psychological Assn, US
Abstract
Investigated the relation between normal heterosexual attraction and autogynephilia (a man's propensity to be sexually aroused by the thought or image of himself as a woman). The Ss were 427 adult male outpatients who reported histories of dressing in women's garments, of feeling like women, or both. The data were questionnaire measures of autogynephilia, heterosexual interest, and other psychological variables. As predicted, the highest levels of autogynephilia were observed at intermediate rather than at high levels of heterosexual interest; that is, the function relating these variables took the form of an inverted-U. This finding supports the hypothesis that autogynephilia is a misdirected type of heterosexual impulse, which arises in association with normal heterosexuality but also competes with it.
#13
Blanchard, Ray; Sheridan, Peter M.
Title: Proportion of unmarried siblings of homosexual and nonhomosexual gender-dysphoric patients.
Source: Canadian Journal of Psychiatry - Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie. Vol 37(3) Apr 1992, 163-167.
Canadian Psychiatric Assn, Canada
Abstract
Investigated the sexual histories of siblings of 219 gender-dysphoric outpatients classified into 3 groups: nonhomosexual males, homosexual males, and homosexual females. Their siblings consisted of 301 brothers and 284 sisters (aged 25+ yrs). Logistic regression shows that the brothers of the homosexual male patients were significantly less likely to have been married, either legally or by common law, than were the brothers of the other gender-dysphoric groups, even with age and relative birth order taken into account. No corresponding effect was found for homosexual female patients. Data suggest that the low propensity for long-term heterosexual relationships seen in homosexual male gender-dysphoric patients also tends to appear in their brothers. (French abstract)
#14
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: The she-male phenomenon and the concept of partial autogynephilia.
Source: Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. Vol 19(1) Spr 1993, 69-76.
Taylor & Francis, England
Abstract
The term autogynephilia denotes a male's propensity to be sexually aroused by the thought or image of himself with female attributes. Some autogynephiles imagine themselves as complete women. Others, called partial autogynephiles (PAGs), imagine themselves with a mixture of male and female anatomic features, usually women's breasts and men's genitals. PAGs evince a particular sexual interest in those individuals known in the vernacular as she-males. These are men, often involved in prostitution or pornography, who have undergone breast augmentation while maintaining their male genitals. PAGs appear less likely to pursue surgical sex reassignment than gender-dysphoric men whose erotic self-image includes a vagina. Patients with a persistent desire for women's breasts may be pacified with mildly feminizing doses of estrogenic hormones.
#15
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Varieties of autogynephilia and their relationship to gender dysphoria.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 22(3) Jun 1993, 241-251.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
238 nonhomosexual male outpatients (94 most aroused sexually by images of themselves as nude women, 67 by images as women in underwear, and 77 by images as clothed women) were compared on questionnaire measures (appended) of gender dysphoria and autogynephilia. The Nude group was significantly more gender dysphoric than the Clothed group, which was significantly more gender dysphoric than the Underwear group. Results support the hypothesis that nonhomosexual men most aroused sexually by the thought of having a woman's body are those most interested in acquiring a woman's body through physical transformation. A secondary finding (that the Nude group was the same age as the Underwear group and significantly younger than the Clothed group) makes it unlikely that erotic fantasies of having a woman's body are the end result of some progression that begins with erotic fantasies of wearing women's clothes.
#16
Freund, Kurt; Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Erotic target location errors in male gender dysphorics, paedophiles, and fetishists.
Source: British Journal of Psychiatry. Vol 162 Apr 1993, 558-563.
Royal Coll of Psychiatrists, England
Abstract
A clinical series of male pedophiles who dressed or fantasized themselves as children suggests that certain paraphilias represent developmental errors in locating erotic targets in the environment and that proneness to such errors is a paraphilic dimension in its own right, apart from the specific nature of the erotic target.
#17
Blanchard, Ray; Collins, Peter I.
Title: Men with sexual interest in transvestites, transsexuals, and she-males.
Source: Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease. Vol 181(9) Sep 1993, 570-575.
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, US
Abstract
Conducted a preliminary exploration of gynandromorphophilia, (i.e., sexual interest in cross-dressed or anatomically feminized men). Ss were male subscribers to a voice mail system devoted to personal advertisements for sexual or romantic partners. These comprised 51 gynandromorphophiles who sought cross-dressers, transvestites, transsexuals, or she-males for such relationships, 37 gynandromorphophilic cross-dressers who identified themselves as cross-dressers and sought similar men, and 31 residual cross-dressers who sought masculine or unspecified male partners. Analysis of advertisement content suggested that gynandromorphophilia constitutes a distinct erotic interest.
#18
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: Partial versus complete autogynephilia and gender dysphoria.
Source: Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. Vol 19(4) Win 1993, 301-307.
Taylor & Francis, England
Abstract
Autogynephilia (sexual arousal in men produced by the thought or image of themselves as women) is often associated with gender dysphoria (the desire to belong to the opposite sex). This study tested the hypothesis that the feature of the nude self-image most responsible for its correlation with gender dysphoria is the imagined vulva. Ss were 220 nonhomosexual male outpatients (aged 18-67 yrs) who reported sexual arousal while imagining themselves with one or more features of the female anatomy. Autogynephilia and gender dysphoria were assessed with questionnaires. Findings confirmed that men who are sexually aroused at the thought of having a vulva are more likely to want to be women.
#19
Blanchard, Ray.
Title: A structural equation model for age at clinical presentation in nonhomosexual male gender dysphorics.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 23(3) Jun 1994, 311-320.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
Investigated factors affecting the age at which gender dysphorics make their 1st requests for clinical assessment. Ss were 194 nonhomosexual male outpatients presenting for the 1st time at a gender identity clinic. Data on age, marital status, and reproductive history were extracted from Ss' charts; additional assessments included the Modified Gynephilia Scale (R. Blanchard, 1985) and the Feminine Gender Identity Scale for Males (K. Freund et al, 1977). Explanations for the timing of S requests were incorporated into a formal path model that was tested using P. M. Bentler's (1989) structural equations program. Results show that the more times an S has been married and the more children he has fathered, the older he is likely to be when he first presents for clinical attention.
#20
Blanchard, Ray; Dickey, Robert; Jones, Corey L.
Title: Comparison of height and weight in homosexual versus nonhomosexual male gender dysphorics.
Source: Archives of Sexual Behavior. Vol 24(5) Oct 1995, 543-554.
Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, US
Abstract
Examined whether homosexual gender-dysphoric males are physically smaller than nonhomosexual gender-dysphoric males. Height, weight, and race of 176 homosexual (16-52 yrs old) and 246 nonhomosexual (18-65 yrs old) outpatients, who complained of discontent with their biological sex, were compared. Results show that compared with non-homosexual dysphorics, the homosexuals were shorter, lighter, and lighter in proportion to their height. The homosexual gender-dysphorics were also shorter than men in the general population, whereas the nonhomosexual gender-dysphorics were not. The smaller physiques of homosexual gender-dysphoric men may partially explain the clinical observation that these patients are more successful in passing as women.
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